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Tropical cyclones and hurricanes are xxx. They are the No.1 hazard for the US, causing xxx of loss.  
A '''tropical cyclone''' is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. They form over warm tropical or subtropical waters and derive their energy from the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which then condenses to form clouds and rain when it reaches cooler air. Tropical cyclones are classified based on their intensity, with tropical depression being the weakest form and hurricane (in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific), typhoon (in the Northwest Pacific), or cyclone (in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean) being the strongest form.


https://www.weather.gov/safety/hurricane Hurricanes are among nature's most powerful and destructive phenomena. On average, 12 tropical storms, 6 of which become hurricanes form over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, or Gulf of Mexico during the hurricane season which runs from June 1 to November 30 each year. In the Central Pacific Ocean, an average of 3 tropical storms, 2 of which become hurricanes form or move over the area during the hurricane season, which runs from June 1 to November 30 each year. Guam, the Northern Marianas and Micronesia experience typhoons all year round but the main season in July through November with a peak from mid-August to mid-September. Over a typical 2-year period, the U.S. coastline is struck by an average of 3 hurricanes, 1 of which is classified as a major hurricane (winds of 111 mph or greater). By knowing what actions to take before the hurricane season begins, when a hurricane approaches, and when the storm is in your area, as well as what to do after a hurricane leaves your area, you can increase your chance of survival. If you, or someone you know, have been a victim of a hurricane, please share your story, including the town and state you were in and the year the event took place.. Please note that NS will then have permission to use your story for educational campaigns. Sharing this information may help save someone’s life in the future. Read stories from survivors and learn how to stay safe.
A tropical cyclone is one of nature's most powerful and destructive forces. Storms, including tropical cyclones and hurricanes, were second only to earthquakes in terms of fatalities, killing 233, 000 people. In the United States, tropical cyclone is the most costly type of natural hazard. Between 1980 and 2002, tropical cyclones caused $1,333.6 billion in damage, with an average cost of $22.2 billion per event -- the highest average event cost among all natural hazard types<ref>[https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2022-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters-historical#:~:text=Tropical%20cyclones%20have%20caused%20the,list%20of%20billion%2Ddollar%20events. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2022-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters-historical#:~:text=Tropical%20cyclones%20have%20caused%20the,list%20of%20billion%2Ddollar%20events.]</ref>.  


=== Impacts ===
This article talks about the change in tropical cyclone with [https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2023-historic-year-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters climate change. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2023-historic-year-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters]. 
Hurricanes pose hazards related to coastal flooding, erosion, and movement of contaminants in highly populated areas. Damage to natural systems can have long-term ecological consequences. The USGS applies a broad range of expertise to assess these hazards, forecast their impacts, understand potential risks, and use this knowledge to inform preparedness, response and recovery.
[[File:Florida Hurricane.jpg|thumb|500px|Hurricane (Source: The Orlando Real<ref>Retrieved from https://www.theorlandoreal.com/is-orlando-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/ on Oct 24, 2024</ref>)]] 


[https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/prepare/hazards.php A better understanding of tropical cyclones and hurricane hazards will help to make a more informed decision on your risk and what actions to take.]
== Impacts ==
The primary hazards from tropical cyclones (which include tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes) are storm surge flooding, inland flooding from heavy rains, destructive winds, tornadoes, and high surf and rip currents<ref>https://www.weather.gov/safety/hurricane</ref><ref>https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tc-hazards</ref>.
* '''Storm surge''' is the abnormal rise in water level caused by a storm's winds, which can exceed 20 feet in height and extend across hundreds of miles of coastline. When combined with the astronomical tide, this rise in water level is known as storm tide. Storm surge can push several miles inland, particularly along bays, rivers, and estuaries. The immense power of storm surge, coupled with large, battering waves, can lead to loss of life, destruction of buildings, erosion of beaches and dunes, and damage to roads and bridges along the coast. Historically, storm surge has been the leading cause of hurricane-related deaths in the United States. You may refer to CRL's [[Storm Surges|storm surge wiki page]] for more detail.
* '''Inland flooding''' from heavy rainfall is the second leading cause of fatalities from landfalling tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones often bring widespread, torrential rains exceeding 6 inches, which can lead to deadly and destructive floods. Such flooding can continue for several days even after the storm has dissipated. The amount of rainfall is not directly tied to the strength of a tropical cyclone but is influenced by the storm's speed, size, and the geography of the affected area. Slower-moving and larger storms tend to produce more rainfall, and mountainous terrain can further intensify rainfall from a tropical cyclone.
* '''Winds''' from a hurricane can destroy buildings and manufactured homes. Debris, such as signs, roofing material, and other items left outside can become flying missiles during hurricanes. Winds can stay above hurricane strength well inland. In 2004, Hurricane Charley made landfall at Punta Gorda on the southwest Florida coast and produced major damage well inland across central Florida with gusts of more than 100 mph.
* '''Tornadoes''' can accompany landfalling tropical cyclones. These tornadoes typically occur in rain bands well away from the center of the storm; however, they can also occur near the eyewall. Usually, tornadoes produced by tropical cyclones are relatively weak and short-lived, but they still pose a significant threat.
* The powerful waves produced by a tropical cyclone's strong winds can pose a significant hazard to coastal residents and mariners. When these waves break along the coast, they can produce deadly '''rip currents''' which can pull even the strongest swimmers away from shore. These waves can also cause significant beach erosion and damage to coastal structures, even at a large distance (e.g. more than 1000 miles) from the storm.  


The major hazards associated with hurricanes are:
== Data ==


* storm surge and storm tide
=== Tropical cyclone datasets ===
* heavy rainfall and inland flooding
<div style="margin-left: 90px;">
* high winds
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70em"
* rip currents
|+
* tornadoes
!Dataset
 
!Description
https://www.weather.gov/safety/hurricane While hurricanes pose the greatest threat to life and property, tropical storms and depression also can be devastating. The primary hazards from tropical cyclones (which include tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes) are storm surge flooding, inland flooding from heavy rains, destructive winds, tornadoes, and high surf and rip currents.
!Map viewer link
 
!Data access link
* Storm surge is the abnormal rise of water generated by a storm's winds. This hazard is historically the leading cause of hurricane related deaths in the United States. Storm surge and large battering waves can result in large loss of life and cause massive destruction along the coast.
|-
* Storm surge can travel several miles inland, especially along bays, rivers, and estuaries.
|HURDAT
* Flooding from heavy rains is the second leading cause of fatalities from landfalling tropical cyclones. Widespread torrential rains associated with these storms often cause flooding hundreds of miles inland. This flooding can persist for several days after a storm has dissipated.
|A database for tropical cyclone historical data released by the [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ National Hurricane Center] (NHC). It is a detailed post-storm analysis of each tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin and the North Pacific Ocean. It includes six-hourly updates on various aspects such as location (latitude, longitude), maximum winds, and central pressure of all known tropical and subtropical cyclones, Since 2004, the database also includes data on the size of these cyclones. This database is regularly updated as new analyses are reviewed. Other NHC data archive can be found [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/ here].
* Winds from a hurricane can destroy buildings and manufactured homes. Signs, roofing material, and other items left outside can become flying missiles during hurricanes.
|
* Tornadoes can accompany landfalling tropical cyclones. These tornadoes typically occur in rain bands well away from the center of the storm.
|[https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Data_Storm.html Access]
* Dangerous waves produced by a tropical cyclone's strong winds can pose a significant hazard to coastal residents and mariners. These waves can cause deadly rip currents, significant beach erosion, and damage to structures along the coastline, even when the storm is more than a 1,000 miles offshore.
|-
 
|HURSAT
=== Dataset Information ===
|Tropical Cyclone-centric satellite data
 
|
=== National Hurricane Center Historical Database ===
|[https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/hurricane-satellite-data Access]
'''Context:'''
|-
The National Hurricane Center (NHC) performs detailed post-storm analysis of each tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin, which includes the North Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea, as well as the North Pacific Ocean. This comprehensive examination utilizes all available observations to officially assess the cyclone's history, including data not available in real-time. The NHC is also committed to regularly updating the historical record as new analyses are reviewed.
|IBTrACS
 
|International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) project is the most complete ''global'' collection of tropical cyclones available. It merges recent and historical tropical cyclone data from multiple agencies to create a unified, publicly available, best-track dataset that improves inter-agency comparisons.  
===Visualization===
|[https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/ View]
[[File:37d98218-7884-460d-83bb-7af40cd0f905.png.png|thumb]]
|[https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/international-best-track-archive Access]
 
|-
[[File:A5faf863-4947-4898-ad3d-f010707db2d4.png|thumb]]
|NHC Active tropical cyclones
 
|Real-time monitoring of currently active cyclones
[[File:A61b299b-7781-4f27-9427-1c540a8433d4.png|thumb]]
|[https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/cyclones/ View]
 
|
[[File:Screenshot 2024-01-03 at 12.41.08 AM.png|thumb|a geographical map showing the tracks of selected cyclones from both the Atlantic and Pacific basins. Blue lines represent Atlantic cyclones, while green lines represent Pacific cyclones. This map provides a visual representation of the paths taken by these cyclones.]]
|-
 
|NHC Forecast
 
|Forecast of rainfall and wind speed of currently active cyclones
'''Content:'''
|[https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/refresh/graphics_at5+shtml/204502.shtml?rainqpf#contents Rainfall], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/refresh/graphics_at5+shtml/204502.shtml?tswind120#contents Wind speed]
The NHC releases the tropical cyclone historical data in a database known as HURDAT (HURricane DATabase). This repository consists of the Atlantic HURDAT2 and the NE/NC Pacific HURDAT2 databases. They provide six-hourly updates on various aspects of all known tropical and subtropical cyclones, including their location, maximum winds, and central pressure. Since 2004, the database also includes the size of these cyclones.
* '''Data Type:''' Gridded, historical database
* '''Coverage:''' Atlantic basin, North Pacific Ocean
* '''Temporal Resolution:''' Six-hourly intervals
* '''Variables:'''
** Location (Latitude, Longitude)
** Maximum Winds (knots)
** Central Pressure (millibars)
** Size parameters (nautical miles, post-2004)
* '''File Format:''' CSV, PDF
* '''Update Frequency:''' Post-storm analysis, with regular updates
 
=== Sample Entry ===
Below is an example of how data is recorded in the HURDAT database<ref>https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/</ref>:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! ID
! Name
! Date
! Time
! Event
! Status
! Latitude
! Longitude
! Maximum Wind
|-
|-
| AL011851
|d4PDF
| UNNAMED
|Database for Policy Decision Making for future climate change. A large ensemble of climate simulations at 60-km resolution and dynamically downscaled to 20 km. It is designed for climate change risk assessments in various research areas such as natural hazard, hydrology, civil engineering, agriculture, health, and insurance.<ref>https://progearthplanetsci.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40645-020-00367-7#availability-of-data-and-materials</ref>
| 18510625
|
| 0
|[https://search.diasjp.net/en/dataset/d4PDF_GCM Access]
|  
| HU
| 28.0N
| 94.8W
| 80
|-
|-
| AL011851
|HighResMIP
| UNNAMED
|The High Resolution Model Intercomparison Project (HighResMIP)<ref>https://highresmip.org/</ref> was an endorsed project under CMIP6, featuring simulations at higher resolutions than typical CMIP6 experiments. It spans the period from 1950 to 2050, with additional targeted experiments. Tropical storm tracks are calculated, which can be used to study changes in tropical cyclones under future global warming conditions.<ref>https://hrcm.ceda.ac.uk/research/cmip6-highresmip/tropical-cyclones/</ref>
| 18510625
|
| 600
|[https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/e82a62d926d7448696a2b60c1925f811/ Access]
|
| HU
| 28.0N
| 95.4W
| 80
|}
|}
</div>
=== Other useful resources ===


 
* [https://www.usgs.gov/hurricanes USGS Hurricane resources], including [https://nas.er.usgs.gov/viewer/Flooding/ impacts on nonindigenous aquatic species]
 
* [https://www.ers.usda.gov/newsroom/trending-topics/hurricane-impacts-on-agriculture/ Hurricane impacts on agriculture] by USDA. Some local financial loss data is included.
=== Usage ===
* [https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/aug24/ngs-storm-imagery-debby.html Hurricane Debby damage assessment aerial imagery]
Researchers, meteorologists, and the public can utilize the HURDAT databases for various purposes, such as climatological studies, risk assessment, and educational projects.
* [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml? The deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones from 1492 to 1996]
 
 
 
 
=== Accessing the Data ===
 
* Database for Policy Decision Making for future climate change https://www.coast.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/d4PDF/index_en.html A large ensemble of climate simulations at 60-km resolution and dynamically downscaled to 20 km. It is designed for climate change risk assessments in various research areas such as natural hazard, hydrology, civil engineering, agriculture, health, and insurance.<ref>https://progearthplanetsci.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40645-020-00367-7#availability-of-data-and-materials</ref> [https://search.diasjp.net/en/dataset/d4PDF_GCM Download]
 
The HURDAT databases can be accessed through the following links:
* https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Data_Storm.html
* https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/
* Hurricane Satellite Data (HURSAT)<ref>Knapp, K. R. and J. P. Kossin, 2007: New global tropical cyclone data from ISCCP B1 geostationary satellite observations. ''Journal of Applied Remote Sensing'', 1, 013505. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.2712816 doi:10.1117/1.2712816]</ref>: Data download: https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/hurricane-satellite-data
* International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/international-best-track-archive. Track mapper: https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/ The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) project is the most complete global collection of tropical cyclones available. It merges recent and historical tropical cyclone data from multiple agencies to create a unified, publicly available, best-track dataset that improves inter-agency comparisons. IBTrACS was developed collaboratively with all the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres, as well as other organizations and individuals from around the world.  
* NASA tropical cyclone: <nowiki>https://disasters-nasa.hub.arcgis.com/</nowiki> also soil moisture.
* '''storm-tide monitoring: <nowiki>https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/storm-tide-monitoring#overview</nowiki>'''
* National hurricane center: <nowiki>https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/refresh/graphics_at4+shtml/102341.shtml?cone#contents</nowiki> USGS Hurricane resources: <nowiki>https://www.usgs.gov/hurricanes</nowiki>
* storm events database by NOAA: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/
* severe weather data inventory by NOAA https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/severe-weather-data-inventory view https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/maps/swdi/
* usgs total water level and coastal change forecast viewer: https://coastal.er.usgs.gov/hurricanes/research/twlviewer/
* [https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/international-best-track-archive The International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS)]
* flooding and storm surge associated with storms will also impact nonindigenous aquatic species https://nas.er.usgs.gov/viewer/Flooding/  
* Hurricane impacts on agriculture: a lot of financial loss data https://www.ers.usda.gov/newsroom/trending-topics/hurricane-impacts-on-agriculture/  
* National Hurricane center<ref>https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/</ref>has a lot of useful information regarding the current hurricanes, including [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ forecast of rainfall], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/refresh/graphics_at5+shtml/204927.shtml?peakSurge#contents storm surge forecast] associated the hurricane
* Historical hurricane tracks https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/#map=4/32/-80
* The deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones from 1492 to 1996: [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml? https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml?].
 
=== Ocean data ===
 
* Daily OISST by NCEI: https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/optimum-interpolation-sst
 
=== Damage and Loss ===
 
* Hurricane Debby damage assessment aerial imagery: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/aug24/ngs-storm-imagery-debby.html
 
=== Others ===
 
* National hurricane center includes a lot of useful information, including [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/ climatology], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php types of damage due to hurricane winds of each category], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/dcmi.shtml the costliest cyclones in the US history], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/modelsummary.shtml summary of global and regional dynamical models for track, intensity, and wind radii.]
* National hurricane center includes a lot of useful information, including [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/ climatology], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php types of damage due to hurricane winds of each category], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/dcmi.shtml the costliest cyclones in the US history], [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/modelsummary.shtml summary of global and regional dynamical models for track, intensity, and wind radii.]
* worldwide tropical cyclone centers https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutrsmc.shtml
* [https://disasters-nasa.hub.arcgis.com/ An interface] for viewing, analyzing, and downloading the latest near real-time and disaster specific data products in GIS format by NASA
* [https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutrsmc.shtml Worldwide tropical cyclone centers]


=== Citation ===
== References ==

Latest revision as of 16:08, 24 October 2024

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. They form over warm tropical or subtropical waters and derive their energy from the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which then condenses to form clouds and rain when it reaches cooler air. Tropical cyclones are classified based on their intensity, with tropical depression being the weakest form and hurricane (in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific), typhoon (in the Northwest Pacific), or cyclone (in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean) being the strongest form.

A tropical cyclone is one of nature's most powerful and destructive forces. Storms, including tropical cyclones and hurricanes, were second only to earthquakes in terms of fatalities, killing 233, 000 people. In the United States, tropical cyclone is the most costly type of natural hazard. Between 1980 and 2002, tropical cyclones caused $1,333.6 billion in damage, with an average cost of $22.2 billion per event -- the highest average event cost among all natural hazard types[1].

This article talks about the change in tropical cyclone with climate change. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2023-historic-year-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters.

Hurricane (Source: The Orlando Real[2])

Impacts

The primary hazards from tropical cyclones (which include tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes) are storm surge flooding, inland flooding from heavy rains, destructive winds, tornadoes, and high surf and rip currents[3][4].

  • Storm surge is the abnormal rise in water level caused by a storm's winds, which can exceed 20 feet in height and extend across hundreds of miles of coastline. When combined with the astronomical tide, this rise in water level is known as storm tide. Storm surge can push several miles inland, particularly along bays, rivers, and estuaries. The immense power of storm surge, coupled with large, battering waves, can lead to loss of life, destruction of buildings, erosion of beaches and dunes, and damage to roads and bridges along the coast. Historically, storm surge has been the leading cause of hurricane-related deaths in the United States. You may refer to CRL's storm surge wiki page for more detail.
  • Inland flooding from heavy rainfall is the second leading cause of fatalities from landfalling tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones often bring widespread, torrential rains exceeding 6 inches, which can lead to deadly and destructive floods. Such flooding can continue for several days even after the storm has dissipated. The amount of rainfall is not directly tied to the strength of a tropical cyclone but is influenced by the storm's speed, size, and the geography of the affected area. Slower-moving and larger storms tend to produce more rainfall, and mountainous terrain can further intensify rainfall from a tropical cyclone.
  • Winds from a hurricane can destroy buildings and manufactured homes. Debris, such as signs, roofing material, and other items left outside can become flying missiles during hurricanes. Winds can stay above hurricane strength well inland. In 2004, Hurricane Charley made landfall at Punta Gorda on the southwest Florida coast and produced major damage well inland across central Florida with gusts of more than 100 mph.
  • Tornadoes can accompany landfalling tropical cyclones. These tornadoes typically occur in rain bands well away from the center of the storm; however, they can also occur near the eyewall. Usually, tornadoes produced by tropical cyclones are relatively weak and short-lived, but they still pose a significant threat.
  • The powerful waves produced by a tropical cyclone's strong winds can pose a significant hazard to coastal residents and mariners. When these waves break along the coast, they can produce deadly rip currents which can pull even the strongest swimmers away from shore. These waves can also cause significant beach erosion and damage to coastal structures, even at a large distance (e.g. more than 1000 miles) from the storm.

Data

Tropical cyclone datasets

Dataset Description Map viewer link Data access link
HURDAT A database for tropical cyclone historical data released by the National Hurricane Center (NHC). It is a detailed post-storm analysis of each tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin and the North Pacific Ocean. It includes six-hourly updates on various aspects such as location (latitude, longitude), maximum winds, and central pressure of all known tropical and subtropical cyclones, Since 2004, the database also includes data on the size of these cyclones. This database is regularly updated as new analyses are reviewed. Other NHC data archive can be found here. Access
HURSAT Tropical Cyclone-centric satellite data Access
IBTrACS International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) project is the most complete global collection of tropical cyclones available. It merges recent and historical tropical cyclone data from multiple agencies to create a unified, publicly available, best-track dataset that improves inter-agency comparisons. View Access
NHC Active tropical cyclones Real-time monitoring of currently active cyclones View
NHC Forecast Forecast of rainfall and wind speed of currently active cyclones Rainfall, Wind speed
d4PDF Database for Policy Decision Making for future climate change. A large ensemble of climate simulations at 60-km resolution and dynamically downscaled to 20 km. It is designed for climate change risk assessments in various research areas such as natural hazard, hydrology, civil engineering, agriculture, health, and insurance.[5] Access
HighResMIP The High Resolution Model Intercomparison Project (HighResMIP)[6] was an endorsed project under CMIP6, featuring simulations at higher resolutions than typical CMIP6 experiments. It spans the period from 1950 to 2050, with additional targeted experiments. Tropical storm tracks are calculated, which can be used to study changes in tropical cyclones under future global warming conditions.[7] Access

Other useful resources

References

  1. ↑ https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/beyond-data/2022-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters-historical#:~:text=Tropical%20cyclones%20have%20caused%20the,list%20of%20billion%2Ddollar%20events.
  2. ↑ Retrieved from https://www.theorlandoreal.com/is-orlando-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/ on Oct 24, 2024
  3. ↑ https://www.weather.gov/safety/hurricane
  4. ↑ https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tc-hazards
  5. ↑ https://progearthplanetsci.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40645-020-00367-7#availability-of-data-and-materials
  6. ↑ https://highresmip.org/
  7. ↑ https://hrcm.ceda.ac.uk/research/cmip6-highresmip/tropical-cyclones/
Retrieved from "http://climateriskwiki.uw.edu/index.php?title=Tropical_Cyclones&oldid=1688"